Particle Structure

The cyclized photon. . The neutrino - The model - The proton-neutron interconversions -
The stucture of matter

The Cyclized Photon

A wave frequency cannot exceed the rate of propagation. The limit to the wavelength of a photon, therefore, is 1/c, or 0.3 X 10-10. It is no coincidence that the wavelength of a photon with a relativistic mass equal to the electron's mass is only slightly larger at 2.17 X 10-10 cm.

A photon is a packet of interacting wavelets with a constant internal action value h in which the polarity of the oscillations is distinguished solely by their being isomeric wave actions of opposed orientations. The distinction is geometric. The wavelets are turned or spiraled in their half of the oscillation in a way that is opposite to that of their counterhalf. But in a pulsating photon, both motions are simultaneous. They expand and contract together. At the threshold of stability, when frequency equals the rate of propagation, the two actions of pulsation interfere. Apparently the photon splits from the stress into two halves of opposite polarities that spiral from each other in opposite directions.

When the photon splits, each half differs from the other only by the geometric twist of its charge oscillation. Because of the spiral, however, each photon half, within a wavelength, spins opposite itself as a half-wave of reversed polarity. In an instant the two halves couple to form a complete but cyclized hemi-photon held together by its own electromagnetism, and with a half-turn in its pulsation.

gg = e- + e+

The electron (and positron), therefore, is a cyclized photon of Compton wavelength h/mc, constricted and stabilized by its own electromagnetism to a radius of e2/mc2, with a permanent twist in its structural wave. It is this turn in the photon wave that creates the electric field. The relativistic mass of the structural photon becomes the rest mass of the electron (positron), the helical orientation gives each particle an electrical field

The factor that unites photons and particles is Planck's constant. The energy of a photon is expressed by Planck's equation E = hv, where h is Planck's constant and v is the frequency. Photons vary in size and wavelength, but they all have in common Planck's constant h. Planck's constant is a quantum of action. And that is why a structural hierarchy based on space, motion, and cyclical time is relevant. In measuring oscillations, action is energy times time. Time then comes into the equation in the form of h for action. In the hierarchy of matter with motion a structural feature, time as orbital time, is a parameter of structure. What the tiers of the hierarchy have in common, therefore, is not energy, it is action, designated by Planck's constant h and equal to energy times time, where time is the rotational time of structural motion: mc²X t = h.

The total energy of a particle consists of the congealed energy of composition mc2 and the energy emitted as electric and gravitational fields. When a photon consisting of one unit of action h with an energy proportional to its frequency, E = hv, decouples and splits to the electron pair, it divides its energy between structural stability of the electron and the electron's electric field.

The field is then used in conjunction with that of the proton in the formation of a hydrogen atom. In the process the photon's unit of action remains the common factor with both particle and atom formation. Considering that an electron consists of the electromagnetism and composition energy mc2, the equation of these two energies is mc2 = e2/r, and this gives a circumference: 2p e2/mc2.

Since the cyclical time for the structure of the electron is at the speed of light, we can obtain an equation by dividing the circumference by c.

Dividing by c for cyclical time: 2pe2/mec3 = t

Multiplying both sides by mc2: 2pe2/c = mec2 X t

The right side of the equation is Planck's constant h. But to balance the equation we have to divide one side by 137, the same constriction factor of the electron from the photon's wavelength.

2pe2/c = mec2 X t/137

2pe2/hc = 1/137

This means that one cycle of the electron represents only 1/137th of the unit of action. The electron, therefore, is stabilized by 137 times more energy of the photon that is diverted to the electric field. The result is the electron is bound by the strong nuclear interaction, while its structural motion generates the electric field.

In the process, however, the circumference of the electron has been reduced 137-fold from the wavelength of its constituent photon l = h/mc, and this results in a 137-fold increase in the cyclical time. Despite diverting the bulk of the photon's energy to the electron's composition and stability, the overall effect, therefore, is the 1/137th fraction of the photon's unit of action being amplified by a proportional increase in cyclical time of the electron, and the electric field retaining one unit of action.

We can now see that the material universe is more rational than we have been giving it credit. Its support is a hierarchy of structures ascending from particles to atoms to gravitating systems. The motion of the gamma photons and their relativistic mass are captured to form particles. The properties of the photons are due to their motion. When the photon's motion becomes structural motion, the properties of the photons become properties of the particles, with some diverted for particle stability.

The Neutrino

The neutrino has always had a credibility problem. It was originally hypothesized to fill an energy gap, and nothing more. Unlike other particles which are readily characterized by mass and charge, the neutrino seems to have neither. And once the theories for particles were formulated, there seemed no need to bestow the neutrino with properties. As a result, the neutrino has never really been regarded realistically. Physicists use it to balance their equations, but they have no rational concept of what it is or where it came from.

The neutrino, however, is a truly unique creation. By the very nature of its smallness it is able to transform electromagnetism into the strong nuclear force and to serve as the seed of particle formation. The strength of attraction depends on distance. Electromagnetism is limited by the size of the proton and electron. Inside a phton or particle, however, where distances are less, the same electric field at close range becomes the strong nuclear interaction that bonds the structure of particles.

It is accepted almost as an article of faith that the neutrino does not have a charge. This is the way Pauli defined it 64 years ago. Since the net charge of particles produced after emission was the same as the original particles, he assumed the particle to be uncharged. This seemed to make sense, since had the particle possessed a charge it would have been expected to produce ions as it sped along and would have been detected in a Geiger counter or a cloud chamber. And in fact, it was not detected.

Because of its extremely small size, the neutrino has tremendous penetrating power, passing through a block of lead several light years in thickness before encountering a particle of matter. Considering then that ionization takes a collision, or at least a near miss, for ionization to occur, in retrospect it is hard to imagine why the neutrino might collide with sensors in a detector and leave a trail of ions.

There is then an important known conversion that is significant to nature of the neutrino. When electrons and positrons encounter in mutual annihilation they do not always revert back to photons, they sometimes transform to a neutrino and antineutrino.

e- + e+ = v- + v+

If the neutrino is a collapsed electron or cyclized photon, then it seems it retains the charge but loses the mass. There should, therefore, be two types, the neutrino and antineutrino, characterized by the two charges. But particle physics does not limit the neutrino types to two. It is believed that as many as six types of neutrinos exist. Since this contradicts the proposed scheme we need to ask, "Where did we get the idea that there are more than two kinds of neutrinos?"

The issue began with the breakdown of the muon. A muon breaks down to an electron and two neutrinos. If, however, the electron family number is to be conserved, then the neutrinos must be different, and hence the neutrino and antineutrino.

m- = e- + v- + v+

The neutrino and antineutrino are presumed to be opposites, and therefore were expected to mutually annihilate if they encountered each other. But this never seems to happen. This led physicists to suspect that the neutrinos were not true opposites, that the neutrino was produced in association with the muon, while the antineutrino was associated with the electron. It seemed, therefore, that muons and electrons produced different kinds of neutrinos.

To test this hypothesis an experiment was set up in 1962 where high energy protons were smashed into beryllium atoms to produce a stream of pions. The pions broke down rapidly to muons and neutrinos. The particles were directed into a wall of armor plate 13.5 meters thick to screen out all particles except the neutrinos. The neutrinos were then passed inside a detecting device where they could interact with a neutron to form a proton, plus either a negative muon or an electron.

v + no = p+ + m-
or
v + no = p+ + e-

It was assumed that if there were only one kind of neutrino then negative muons and electrons should be produced equally. They weren't. Only negative muons were produced. To the researchers this indicated that when pions break down to muons and neutrinos, only muon neutrinos were formed, unlike the ordinary neutrinos associated with electrons and positrons.

Consider now the reactions from the photonic perspective. An electron can't just be dispatched from a neutron. It originates from a split photon or a released cyclized photon. The electron, therefore, would not be formed without an accompanying positron or antineutrino. If there had been a positron it would surely have been detected. The neutron, on the other hand, is a proton bound by a neutrino. The full equation then is where this is knocked out, the proton reforms, and a photon is created which transforms to an electron and antineutrino. The neutrino and antineutrino combine to a binary.

v- + no = p+ + g + v-
* *
e- + v-v+

To understand the equation in which the negative muon is produced we need to consider the composition of the muon. It has been proposed that it is a cyclized photon with a neutrino-antineutrino nucleus. In other words, it is an electron with a binary nucleus. The second equation then becomes:

v- + no = p+ + (g + v-v+) = m-

The only difference in the equations, therefore, is that the neutrino-antineutrino pair stays with the cyclized photon momentarily to form a negative muon before separating to form an electron. Why the muon should form in preference to the electron must have something to do with the formation and cleavage of the p photon. That issue, however, is irrelevant. With this interpretation there is no reason to believe the result of the experiment indicated the existence of another type of neutrino.

Consider now what an electron is and what apparently happens when it collapses to a neutrino. The electron was formed from half of a photon at the threshold of the photon's stability. Its electric charge is due to the directional motion of the constituent photon, its mass to the pulsing of the photon. The pulsing coincides with the frequency and generates the gravitational field.

When the electron collapses its spin increases rapidly with the decreasing size, and its electric field intensifies as it becomes more concentrated toward the smaller source. The field itself remains the same, diminishing in intensity with distance. The difference is that with the smaller particle the intensity gradient extends inwardly much farther to the smaller neutrino than was possible with the electron.

The situation with the gravitational field, however, is different. The field is due to the frequency, or pulse, of the constituent photon. When the electron collapses the amplitude of the pulse decreases rapidly, while its frequency should soar proportionally. But the photon making up the electron is already at the threshold and limit of its frequency. The frequency cannot increase. This, however, doesn't stop the amplitude from dropping to an extremely low value. And that wipes out the gravitational field.

In other words, a neutrino is a photon that has lost its pulse. Actually, it isn't completely gone, otherwise it is hard to rationalize how it could otherwise make a wave in space that allows it to travel at the speed of light. But since the size of the neutrino is 10-43 cm, and the size of the electron is 10-13 cm, the pulse must be reduced to 1023th of its original value.

The Model

There are some fundamental questions that any system for particles must resolve. Why is the proton with an equal but opposite charge always 1,836 rimes the mass of the electron? Of all the particles with mass, why should only the proton and electron be stable? For some reason the unit charge stays an unerring constant, while the mass for various particles spans a wide spectrum. The system must account for the creation of mass and charge, and show what the properties are in real terms. It should indicate why particles interact the way they do, and it should give an answer to what happened to all that antimatter that supposedly was formed when matter was created.

The system also has to account for the coupling of particles, the strong nuclear force that binds protons and neutrons. Just as with atoms where the coupling of atoms to molecules is a consequence of atomic structure, so too the coupling of protons and neutrons should be the consequence of the structure of particles. In this way the binding "force" is a part of structure, and is as strong as the structure itself.

Particles must also have a simple structural pattern with a potential for diversity. It must be a basic geometric system where the power of expansion is in the design. Like atoms where only three particles are needed to produce over a hundred different elements, there should be only two or three different types of constituents to produce hundreds of particles. And the system has to create the properties that make possible the succeeding tiers of matter's hierarchy - the atoms and gravitational systems.

If particles are true members of the hierarchy then the character of the constituents is conveniently restricted. Mass and charge have to originate from the assembly of the particle system, yet the constituents themselves must be without mass and charge. There are only two things known to exist that are without mass and charge. They are photons and neutrinos.

There has been direct evidence suggesting that photons and neutrinos are components of particles, but physicists followed another course. If we take the facts at face value, however, then when the neutral pion (po) decays to two gamma photons, it would suggest that two photons somehow had constituted the po. When the p- decomposes to a muon and a neutrino, and the muon decays to an electron, a neutrino, and an antineutrino, then the p- must have contained two neutrinos and an antineutrino. Since the electron doesn't fit into a muon, then something in the structure of the muon must have become an electron when the muon decomposed. And when an electron and positron mutually annihilate to produce two gamma photons with the same energy, and colliding photons become an electron and positron, then in some way photons and the electron pair must be interconvertible.

Within the photon is the potential to form all the constituents of particles and the interactions which they undergo. The photon itself is an uncharged particle of opposed wavelets of electromagnetism, in balance and pulsing in a frequency as a wave traveling in space. Those same internal actions, separated, rearranged, and condensed on themselves, transform the properties of the photon to properties of the particles.

We can imagine atoms and particles as tiers of a hierarchy similar in structure but dissimilar in composition. Motion is the structural feature of both, but the two forms of matter are divided by the two kinds of motion. Atoms consist of electrons in orbital shells around a nucleus of protons and neutrons; while particles consist of cyclized photons encasing a core of neutrinos and antineutrinos. Mass of the atoms resides in the rest mass of the particles; the mass of the particles is in the relativistic mass of the photons.

We can assume that both systems are stabilized by resonance and harmonics. The orbitals of electrons correspond to integral wavelengths of the electrons, and the shells are spaced in a harmonic series expressed by n2, where n refers to the shell number and indicating values 1, 4, 9, 16... . Electrons in an atom are locked into orbit by their wavelength and move in harmony with the electrons of the outer shells. The atom, therefore, is like a bell that achieves its own resonance as it vibrates in a strictly integral number of waves.

It seems reasonable to assume that particles are stabilized the same way. There is, however, a difference between electrons and photons. With electrons the wavelength of the particle correlates with the velocity, and the velocity of electrons is a variable that can be adjusted to the respective orbital shell. With photons, on the other hand, the velocity is constant. If the photons in nested shells are to oscillate in unison their spacing has to follow a different series.

A circumference is in direct ratio with the radius. If the innermost shell consists of a single wavelength of a photon, then a photon with two wavelengths will be in a shell at a distance twice as far, and one with twice that number at a distance four times the inner radius. This series is 1, 2, 4, 8, has the formula 2(exp)n-1.

A model of this type is conceivable, except that mass corresponds to wavelength, and in this case, the circumference changes but the wavelength does not. As a result, photons in each shell have the same mass. On the other hand, if the same series is retained and a single wavelength is assigned to each shell distance, then the mass of the particle will be greater with the inner shell and decrease by half with each successive shell. The photons in all shells will then pulsate in unison.

There is now a correlation between electrons, positrons, and neutrinos. In beta decay when an electron is emitted an antineutrino is emitted simultaneously; when a positron is emitted, there is a corresponding emission of a neutrino. In the proposed model electrons and positrons stem from negative and positive-oriented cyclic photons. There is, therefore, in the structure a correspondence of negative-oriented photons with an antineutrino and a positive-oriented photon with a neutrino.

The model, therefore, consists of a nucleus of neutrinos and antineutrinos paired with cyclic photons of opposed charge orientation. The photons are in concentric shells spaced harmonically by the formula 2(exp)n-1. And the sum mass of the photons equals the rest mass of the particle.

With these guidelines and consideration of the role of pions in the dissociation of protons, the apparent structure of the proton consists of four neutrino-antineutrino pairs in the nucleus surrounded by three shells of cyclic photons in the distribution of 1+, 2, and 6. The shell energies are 268.08, 134.04, and 67.02 MeV, respectively.
p+ 4(v-v+) 1+, 2, 6 S 938.28 MeV
268.08 134.04 67.02

Shell III, the outer shell of 67.02 MeV, is the pion shell, and for the proton it contains three doublets of oppositely charged photons. Each doublet with a mass of 134.04 MeV (2 X 67.02) is the precursor of neutral pions whose measured mass is 134.96 MeV.

Since the pion shell has assigned a mass of 67.02 MeV, the size for one wavelength can be calculated: l = 1.24 X 10-4/67.02 X 106 = 1.85 X 10-12 cm. The wavelength corresponds to the circumference, so the radius = 2.94 X 10-13 cm. And this is in good agreement with the reported size of the proton.

The radius of the electron is 2.82 X10-13 cm, the radius of the proton calculated from the model is essentially the same at 2.94 X 10-13 cm. Yet the proton has a composite structure and a mass that is 1,836 times that of the electron. The model shows why they are the same size.

The size of the proton is calculated from the 67.02 MeV value for the pion shell. This gives a correct value, but since it depends on the half-mass of the pion, why should the pion have this particular mass? It seems unlikely that the pion would just happen to have this mass independently of the proton. There must be something in the structures of particles that determines it.

All particles are interrelated through their common derivation from the photon. When a cyclized photon closes on itself by internalized electromagnetism to form the electron, there is a 137-fold constriction, but no change in the relativistic mass. On the other hand, when the cyclized photon is bound by the corresponding neutrino, not only is there a 137-fold constriction, there is a 137-fold enhancement of the relativistic mass (0.511 X 137 = 70.00).

Mass corresponds to the photon's frequency, so a bonding interaction that increases the frequency, enhances the mass. The mass enhancement correlates with the 137-fold constriction and apparently results from the strong interaction of the photon with its corresponding nuclear neutrino. Since the pion is a doublet, this accounts for this particular mass. Half of the mass is the relativistic mass of the constituent photon that is derived from the same source as the electron.

The spins and electric fields of neutrinos are the same as the cyclic photon from which they originate, but because of the reduced size of the particle they are intensified as the reaction range is shortened. In other words, the electromagnetic attraction between a neutrino and a cyclic photon at the size of the photon becomes the strong nuclear interaction at a range 137 times closer within the particle 137 times smaller.

When the cyclized photons collapse they carry with them their electric fields and spins. The spin of the resulting neutrino gives it a magnetic moment that reacts with its opposed counterpart, the antineutrino. This is the weak nuclear interaction. The electric field of the neutrino, being internal and close range, behaves as a strong nuclear interaction in the same manner as for binding energy of the electron. In the case of the neutrino, however, it is the nucleus and binds the corresponding encircling cyclized photon. When a neutrino or an antineutrino is lost from the nucleus, as in beta decay, the mass due to bonding to its respective cyclized photon is converted to kinetic energy of the products.

The cyclic photons of opposite orientation form not only the electron and positron, they interact to form metastable doublets. These doublets dissociate rapidly by electromagnetic decay, but when bound to a neutrino nucleus by the strong nuclear interaction they are stabilized. Just as change in the nucleus of an atom changes the element, changing the nucleus of a particle by the weak interaction results in change or disintegration of the particle.

And there is no antimatter "lost in space". The model shows that complex particles contain within their structures opposed forms of derivatives from photons in a balance, just as the electromagnetic fields are in balance in the neutral photon. Instead of particles being formed symmetrically with their antimatter counterpart, in some way protons and electrons probably formed simultaneously from the same creative electromagnetic brew.

There is, therefore, within the dimension of the photon another order of structure and composition, comparable to that of the atom but as distant toward the infinitesimal on the other side as our world of stars and satellites is on this. The neutrino nucleus is as small in size and as distant relative to the constituent photons as the nucleus of the atom is to its encircling electrons. Having the same structural pattern the model allows not only a large variety of particles from a few components, it also provides the means for coupling and transmutation.

The concentration of energy in the hierarchical units decreases with size. Neutrinos are in the BeV range, particles in MeV, atoms in KeV, molecules in eV, and gravitational systems considerably less. These are bonding values and do not imply time and action. But if the hierarchy of orbital systems is accepted, then orbital time sets the containment of energy and can be used to define the system in terms of action. Now as we descend the hierarchy, the energy concentration successively increases with each stage and the orbital time decreases. The sizes of the system diminish proportionally. What stays constant is action.

The model shows the interconversion of mass and energy in a specific way in which matter has a distinct structural definition. The two kinds of motion - kinetic and radiant - are related through mass by the interconversion equations of Planck and Einstein. Motion is a structural feature of matter with atoms and particles on opposing sides of the structural divide, each with a respective form of motion: atoms with the kinetic motion of the electrons; particles with the cyclized motion of photons. The divide is bridged where rest mass and electric charge originate in the relativistic mass and rotational orientation of constituent photons.

There are four stable subatomic particles: neutrinos, photons, protons, and electron. Protons and electrons are the building blocks of atoms; neutrinos and photons are the basic blocks of subatomic particles. Just as only three constituents - protons, neutrons, and electrons - give rise to over 100 atoms, only three known entities - neutrinos, antineutrinos, and photons - are necessary to account for all the conceivable subatomic particles, including their antiparticle counterparts.

The Proton-Neutron Conversions

There are three equations concerning the conversion of a proton and a neutron that have to be explained.

Neutron decay:
(1) no = p+ + e- + v

Proton conversion:
(2) p+ = no + e+ + v

K-Capture:
(3) p+ + e- = no + v

If a neutrino has a negative charge, then the interactions of a proton with a neutrino readily explains the neutron.
p+ + v- = no

The nucleus of the proton has four antineutrinos and four neutrinos. Since they are all bound to a corresponding cyclic photon, none exhibits a charge. When a neutrino enters a proton and binds to the nucleus it brings with it its negative electric field, which binds with the positive field from the constituent photon of the proton, neutralizing it and forming the neutron.

Nothing about the structure of the proton is changed, therefore, except the addition of a neutrino to its nucleus. The pion shell remains the same for the proton and neutron alike. The size of the particles is unaffected. The only change is with the charge and a slight mass difference due to the bonding on the charged photon.

Neutron decay, on the other hand, is more than the neutron losing the neutrino and reverting back to a proton. As equation 1 shows, an electron and an antineutrino are emitted. The neutrino bound to the neutron, however, cannot revert back to an electron. Being a collapsed electron or cyclic photon, it would not be able to reform am electron under ordinary conditions. The question then is: Where did the electron and antineutrino come from?

The conversion of a proton to a neutron represents a similar problem. A position and neutrino are emitted simultaneously. It is conceivable that the charge on the positron is the same charge that was on the proton. That charge should be neutralized and hidden in the neutron. If then the proton interacts with a neutrino to form the neutron, where did the positron and the other neutrino come from?

In K-capture, where an electron is pulled into the nucleus of an atom and changes a proton to a neutron, an antineutrino is emitted. The electron doesn't just bind to the proton electrostatically, something else happens. If it collapses to a neutrino, why is an antineutrino emitted?

In solving these problems the conservation laws have to be honored. No charges can be generated or eliminated that are not balanced by the opposite number.
Consider now the following equation

Neutrinos and antineutrinos interact to form binaries.

v- + v+ = (v-v+)o

Neutrinos and antineutrinos are of opposite charges and spins. There should be a strong attraction between them. They can combine to form a neutral binary particle, but they cannot mutually annihilate because their compositions are not opposed configurations as with matter and antimatter.

A neutrino can cause an energetic photon to split to an electron and an antineutrino.

v- + g = e- + v-v+

If a neutrino and an antineutrino bind strongly, and both are formed by the collapse of the respective cyclic photon, then it seems likely that the cleavage of an energetic photon can be precipitated and even directed by an encounter with either a neutrinos or antineutrino.

The converse for an antineutrino is then the following:

v+ + g = e+ + v-v+

If now we look at the equations for neutron decay and proton conversion we see paired emissions e- + v+ and e+ + v-. These fit the bonding correlations in the structures, but the e- and e+ could not have come from either a neutrino or a constituent photon. Where then did they come from?

The fact that the pairing is the same as the neutrino-(+)photon and antineutrino-(-)photon pairing in the structure of particles seems to be unrelated to the issue. If one considers the neutrons as charged, then each pair consists of opposed charges. The question, of course, is where could a photon come from. It could not be incidental. The reactions are too consistent for that. Furthermore, the photon must be extremely energetic to undergo cleavage spontaneously. The answer lies in the arrangement of the model.

When a neutrino joins the nucleus of the proton to make a neutron it makes the nucleus negative. The positive charge is in a surrounding cyclic photon. Considering the relative dimensions of the neutrinos nucleus and the enclosing photons this structure is just like that of an atom with reversed polarities.
It is now easy to see from whence came the photon. When the neutrino leaves the nucleus in neutron decay, it going out is like an electron falling in. It makes a photon. This photon, however, is extremely energetic and below the threshold of stability. It splits immediately, half forming an electron, half under the influence of the neutrino forming an antineutrino. The neutrino and antineutrino form a binary, and that is why the departing neutrino isn't in the equation.

The same explanation accounts for the products when a proton converts to a neutron. The proton must be absorbing a neutrino from the same source. Why a photon would be formed and then cleave to make a positron and neutrino is less apparent than with the decay of the neutron. The answer, however, is too consistent with everything else not to be right.

K-capture can be reasonable explained. When the electron falls into the proton it collapses to a neutrino and binds to the nucleus, forming the neutron. The inward fall of the electron produces a photon that divides instantly. That K-capture would produce only an antineutrino is inconsistent with the general scheme. Also, the antineutrino cannot be alone and have a charge and the equation be balanced. Apparently the photon produces a neutrino-antineutrino binary pair, and this puts everything into order.

p+ + e- = no + v-v+

There is now an early experiment in the detection of neutrinos that needs to be examined. Beginning in 1953 Clyde Cowan, Jr., and Frederick Reines commenced to try to experimentally capture an antineutrino by reversing the process of neutron decay.

no = p+ + e- + v

In order for the reverse of this reaction to occur it would require the simultaneous interaction of an electron and antineutrino with a proton. The probability of this occurring is astronomically small, so they altered the experiment. Since the absorption of an electron is equivalent to the emission of a positron they designed the experiment for the following conversion:

v + p+ = e+ + no

Their source of antineutrinos was the rapid conversion of neutrons to protons within nuclei of fission products of a nuclear reactor. Their proton targets were large tanks of water, and therefore rich in hydrogen nuclei consisting of single protons.

The interaction produces a positron and a neutron. The positron interacts almost immediately with an electron, producing two gamma photons of known energy and readily detectable. The neutron was absorbed by cadmium which then released a gamma photon of known frequency. This combination of events, therefore, was the identifying signal of the antineutrino. In 1956 this characteristic pattern of gamma radiation was finally detected and the antineutrino was recognized as being real.

The experiment was different from the ordinary proton conversion because the physicists employed the positive antineutrino instead of the neutrino. The indications are still strong, however, that the neutron consists of a proton and a neutrino. That would then suggest that a positron and a neutrino were formed by the reaction. These particles make up a pair that can come from a photon. Without knowing exactly how or why, apparently the antineutrino collided with a proton and produced a photon that converted to a positron and a neutrino. The neutrino stayed with the proton to form the neutron.

The Structure of Matter

The proton and neutron make a case where the particles clearly represent a closely related pair, but differ in charge and a small mass difference. There are several similar pairs where the small mass difference can be accounted for by a charge-bearing neutrino.

The Pions

The pions consist of the neutral pion po with a mass of 134.96 MeV, and the charged pions with the mass 139.57 MeV. The po shows all indications of being a doublet. It decomposes electromagnetically in 10-16 sec to two photons.

po = g + g

And when photons have sufficient energy they can interact with a proton metastably and emit a po in the dissociation.

p+ + g = p+ + po

The indications are, therefore, that the po is a doublet. And from the model, presumably it has a neutrino-antineutrino nucleus.

If now a doublet consists of opposed cyclized photons and has a mass of 134.96 MeV, the structure of a charged pion with mass 139.57 MeV presents a problem for the photonic model. To have a charge it needs an odd number of photons. But since the mass difference from a po is an increase of only 4.61 MeV, a rational arrangement seems difficult. Therein comes the neutrino.

A pion has a doublet of photons. If the charged pion has a nucleus consisting of a triplet of neutrinos, then one neutrino or antineutrino is unmatched and is responsible for the charge. And in each case where a pair of particles differ by charge and only slight in mass, the charge apparently comes from an unmatched neutrino.

The muon

The muon has been difficult to rationalize by any model. It is an intermediate particle in the decay of charged pions.

p- = m- + v(?)
139.57 105.66
m- = e- + v- + v+

By the photonic model a charged pion consists of a doublet of photons and a triplet of neutrinos, with the charge being from the odd neutrino. The muon apparently has a single photon and a neutrino-antineutrino pair, which is consistent in it existing only in the charged state. The first equation suggests that the p- transforms to m- by losing a positive oriented photon from the doublet and a neutrino from the nucleus. The photon seems lost since it doesn't show up in the equation. The equation is balanced, however, by the doublet splitting to the negative cyclic photon of the muon and an antineutrino. The antineutrino is bound to the neutrino from the pion nucleus as a binary.

p- = m- + (v-v+)o

The m- then contains the negative photon and neutrino pair. Since the neutrino-antineutrino pair is neutral, the charge is induced by the cyclized photon. Its decay mode then follows in order.

What seems unusual is the muon having a mass of 105.66 MeV. The muon is in effect an electron with a nucleus, and in fact, has been referred to as a "heavy electron". Its single photon in the parent pion has a mass of 69.78 MeV. Why it should increase to 105.66 MeV when the doublet splits is uncertain. Either the neutrino pair on a single photon enhances its mass considerably, or in dissociation of the doublet the departing photon makes a recoil that kicks the remaining photon to a higher frequency.

The baryons

Baryons are unstable derivatives of the proton or neutron that are found in cosmic rays or can be produced by bombarding protons with pions. The model shows how the series can be built up by the addition of pions to the pion shell. With the new conception of the charged pion consisting of a doublet and an unpaired neutrino in the nucleus carrying the charge the composition of the baryons can be reconstructed from their decay products.

The structure of the Lo particle is straightforward. It is a combination of the proton and the negative pion, with an excess energy of 37.75 MeV.

Lo 1+, 2, 6, p-, -37.75 MeV pp-

The sigma particles show an increase of mass in increments characteristic of the enhancement that occurs with a charged neutrino: S+, 1189.36; So, 1192.46; S-, 1197.34. Reassembling the particles from their decay products gives the following compositions:

S+ 1+, 2, 6, po, -11612 MeV ppo

So 1+, 2, 6, p-, -114.61 MeV pp-

S-(v+) 1+, 2, 6, po, -118.2 MeV np-

Apparently the Lo particle and the S particles each have a single pion as an adduct. The difference between them seems to be only the amount of excess energy.

Again the composition of the X particles appears direct, with the increment difference in mass being due to the charged pion: Xo, 1314.90; X-, 1321.32

Xo 1+, 2, 6, p-, po, -64.34 MeV Lopo

X- 1+, 2, 6, p-, p-, -66.15 MeV Lop-

The W particle has been reported with decay products of LoK-, but also Xop- or X-po. If the photonic model is correct, then the same W particle could not be responsible for both decay modes. This particle is then shown as two forms have the following compositions:

1W- 1+, 2, 6, p-, po, p-, -80.99 MeV X-po/Xop-

2W- 1+, 2, 6, p-, po, po, p-, -63.18 MeV LoK-

The difference now in the model is that the derivatives of the proton contain energy that does not show up in the structure of the particle. It must be kept in mind that these particles are unstable and the excess energy is the driving force of their decomposition. Apparently three pions in the shellI is the most stable configuration and any additional pions make an unstable particle which decomposes back to the proton arrangement.

These derivatives are formed by the collision with a proton or neutron by highly energetic pions from astronomical or mechanical sources. When these pions are accelerated to high velocities their de Broglie frequency increases. This apparently is the source of the added energy which they carry and add to the particles with which they interact.

Strangeness is a property assigned to particles that form by one interaction and decompose by another. There is no explanation for it by the quarks model. By the photonic model, the way it occurs is obvious.

Particles have three modes of decay: weak interaction, electromagnetic, and strong interaction, each characterized by its own time interval and products. The model serves to illustrate the specific reactions involved in each mode of decay. Those particles possessing pion doublets interact strongly to join their respective pion shells. Such particles, because they have nuclei, can interact either of two ways, they can consolidate their pion shells but keep the nuclei separate, analogous to molecule formation; or they can combine both nuclei and pion shells to form new particles. Therein lies the nature of strangeness.
When protons are bombarded with energetic pions they form excited states that are metastable and dissociate in 10-23 to 10-22 second with the emission of pions. If, instead, their nuclei fuse, then baryons are formed, and they are more stable and decay in 10-10 second by the weak interaction, and this makes them seem strange.

In further studies it can be shown why the proton configuration is particularly stable and why the proton and electron would have resulted from the same creative conditions simultaneously.

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